169

An analysis of gender discrimination in

the context of media convergence of

Spanish female journalists

Un análisis de la discriminación de género en el contexto

de convergencia mediática de las periodistas españolas

DOCTORAL THESIS

Ph.D. student at the Universitat de Vic-Universitat Central de Catalunya, currently directing the

Translation, Gender, and Culture program.

chennandeyouxiang@gmail.com

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4120-9086

RECEIVED: 2023-11-06 / ACCEPTED: 2023-12-07

Nan Chen

OBRA DIGITAL, 25, June 2024, pp. 169-184, e-ISSN 2014-5039

DOI: https://doi.org/10.25029/od.2024.411.25

Abstract: In an era marked by rapid digitaliza-

tion and the convergence of media platforms,

gender equality, particularly within journalism,

has gained prominence. However, gender dis-

crimination remains a challenge for female

journalists. This research collected 387 valid

responses from Spanish media professionals

through digital and other channels. Data analy-

sis, including statistical methods like frequency

analysis and chi-square tests, aims to uncover

factors aecting the careers of Spanish female

journalists. The goal is to provide empirically

supported recommendations for gender equal-

ity in the dynamic Spanish media landscape.

Keywords: Spanish female journalists, media

convergence, gender discrimination.

Resumen: En una era marcada por la rápida

digitalización y la convergencia de las platafor-

mas mediáticas, la igualdad de género, en par-

ticular dentro del periodismo, ha ganado pro-

tagonismo. Sin embargo, la discriminación de

género sigue siendo un reto para las periodis-

tas. Esta investigación recopiló 387 respuestas

válidas de profesionales de los medios de co-

municación españoles a través de canales digi-

tales y de otro tipo. El análisis de los datos, que

incluye métodos estadísticos como el análisis

de frecuencias y las pruebas de chi-cuadrado,

pretende descubrir los factores que afectan

a la carrera profesional de las periodistas es-

pañolas. El objetivo es proporcionar recomen-

daciones empíricamente respaldadas para la

igualdad de género en el dinámico panorama

mediático español.

Palabras clave: Mujeres periodistas españo-

las, convergencia de medios, discriminación de

género.

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An analysis of gender discrimination in the context of media convergence of

Spanish female journalists

1. INTRODUCTION

In modern times, media companies use inno-

vative channels to reach and engage with their

desired audiences. There is a general percep-

tion that conventional media is being overshad-

owed by new media, with newspaper reader-

ship in particular on the decline (Richardson,

2020). In the past, the communication and

expression of ideas was primarily controlled by

a hierarchical framework. However, the emer-

gence of contemporary media oers many

possibilities for expanding the reach of people

around the world. The mainstream media land-

scape has created a level playing eld, giving

everyone a fair chance to express their views

(Barone, 2020).

Initially, when these platforms emerged, ex-

perienced professionals had the upper hand,

resulting in them dominating successful inde-

pendent media accounts. However, with the

advancement of technology, content creation

is now accessible to everyone (Wong, 2020).

Major social media platforms in the Western

world are primarily developed and run by the

United States. These platforms, such as Face-

book, Instagram, and Twitter, have a substan-

tial user base and provide private and instant

messaging features. According to the special

report “Digital 2021 Eapaña,” released by a

global creative agency named We Are Social

in 2021, Spain has 42.54 million Internet users

and 37.4 million active Internet users. In the

data for 2022, compared with 2021, the num-

ber of registered users of Spanish social net-

works has increased signicantly. According to

the “Social media usage in Spain - Statistics &

Facts report released” by Statista, Spain has a

large social media market in Western Europe,

with an expected 41 million users by 2023 and

a predicted increase to about 46 million users

by 2028. Most of Spain’s internet users use so-

cial networks, leading to a considerable social

audience and a thriving digital and social adver-

tising industry.

In an environment of increasing digitization

on a global and domestic scale, media profes-

sionals have tremendous opportunities for ad-

vancement in the evolution of traditional me-

dia, the expansion of emerging media, and the

convergence of the two into innovative forms.

As the converged communications market con-

tinues to experience increasing overlap, the

relevance of media convergence in the digital

creative economy is clear (Latzer, 2013). More

and more journalists, including female journal-

ists, are creating accounts on social media to

showcase their work experience and expertise

to gain more employment opportunities.

However, female journalists still face gender

discrimination in such an environment that

should be equal and free of speech. We used to

talk about gender discrimination issues, such as

job ceilings, oce harassment, etc. In the digital

environment, even though their workplaces are

no longer restricted by time and space transi-

tions, female journalists still suer from online

violence and harassment as well as harsh treat-

ment in work assignments in the high interac-

tivity of new media.

This article tackles head-on the job opportuni-

ties and challenges faced by female journalists

in Spain amidst media convergence. It fearless-

ly confronts the gender discrimination issues

that plague this industry.

1.1 MEDIA CONVERGENCE

In dierent domains, “convergence” is em-

ployed to explore and analyze transformations

171171

Nan Chen

that result in integration or harmony. Concern-

ing communication, this is known as “media

convergence” and has a signicant connection

to the digital creative industry. Grasping the ins

and outs of media convergence, such as its ap-

proaches and eects, holds great signicance

in comprehending the digital creative economy

(Latzer, 2013). Media convergence epitomizes

the seamless integration of information and

communication technologies, computer net-

works, and media content. This holistic fusion

harmonizes the spheres of computing, com-

munication, and content, stemming directly

from the pervasive digitization of media ma-

terials and the omnipresence of the Internet

(Flew, 2023). In this milieu, information dissem-

ination exhibits noteworthy speed and quali-

ty. Presently, news dissemination transcends

conventional reliance on periodicals, newspa-

pers, and television broadcasts, encompassing

diverse information technologies. The internet

serves as a pivotal medium for diverse forms

of information propagation, catalyzing the rap-

id advancement of the journalism industry and

actualizing news digitalization. This transforma-

tion culminates in the unparalleled swiftness of

news information dissemination (Zuo, 2021).

The phenomenon of media convergence has

granted users the agency to generate and dis-

seminate content, tailor their viewing schedules

through on-demand features, and engage in

peer-to-peer interactions through technology.

This transformative shift reects evolving con-

sumer preferences and is further compounded

by the digitalization and deregulation of media

and communication markets, exerting substan-

tial inuence on the competitive dynamics with-

in the media industry (Picard, 2010).

On a global scale, the notion of multimedia

integration was introduced quite early, with

academic discourse rst emerging in the late

1970s. Prominent gures like Nicholas Negro-

ponte (1979) were among the early voices to

discuss the emerging phenomenon of digitali-

zation and its implications for the convergence

of textual and audio-visual languages. In Spain,

newsroom research methods gained promi-

nence around 2005. Subsequently, research-

ers, supported by the Ministry of Science and

Technology, delved into online news studies.

Convergence emerged as a prominent re-

search topic, leading to the formation of a ro-

bust research team comprising scholars with

diverse perspectives on journalism and tech-

nology. Starting in 2006, increased funding for

convergence research claried the concept

and aimed to establish guidelines benecial to

the media industry and professional training (

Martínez, 2009). The single-platform cooper-

ation model, characterized by the decline of

print publications and the shift of remaining re-

sources to digital platforms, has spurred con-

versations regarding the necessity of enhanced

cross-media collaboration in the future. Audi-

ence engagement emerges as a pivotal strate-

gic concern within all these models, intricately

linked with the formulating of cross-media

strategies within organizations and augment-

ing journalists’ competence in engaging across

diverse communication channels. Establishing

cohesive social media strategies and incentiv-

izing user-generated content represent shared

imperatives in this evolving landscape (García-

Avilés, Kaltenbrunner & Meier, 2014). With

increasing globalization and the rise of digital

media, media organizations in Spain have be-

gun to seek cooperation and integration with

international media to expand coverage and

increase competitiveness (Napp, 2022).

In the Spanish context, mobile devices have

emerged as the prevailing conduit for access-

ing social media, with a remarkable 97% of

the population utilizing them for this purpose.

Messaging applications occupy a prominent

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An analysis of gender discrimination in the context of media convergence of

Spanish female journalists

position, serving as the preferred platform

for approximately 83% of social media users.

WhatsApp, a property of Meta, commands a

substantial presence, with over 91% of Span-

ish internet users adopting it as their primary

choice and expressing notable satisfaction.

Facebook is the second most frequently em-

ployed platform, followed by Instagram (Data

source: 2023 Statista published in “Social me-

dia usage in Spain - Statistics & Facts”).

A noteworthy phenomenon in Spain is the

considerable inclination among its populace

to maintain connections with loved ones, ac-

quaintances, and friends through messaging

apps. This predilection is underscored by the

fact that over fty percent of the population ac-

tively engages with social media platforms. This

yearning for connection and closeness renders

Spain an ideal market for inuencers seeking to

engage with local audiences. Furthermore, pro-

fessionals operating within the media industry

are eager to rene their digital competencies

and capitalize on expanded networking pros-

pects (Data source: 2023 Statista published in-

”Leading social media usage reasons in Spain

2022”).

1.2 GENDER EQUALITY

Gender equality has been a longstanding issue

in various industries, persisting as a problem

that has taken on dierent forms over time.

Gender disparities persist in leadership roles

within the technology, information, and media

sectors. Despite ongoing endeavors to advance

workplace gender equality, women contin-

ue to be underrepresented in key leadership

positions. This underrepresentation not only

constrains organizations from realizing their

full potential but also perpetuates entrenched

gender biases (Baird, 2023). Therefore, gender

equality has begun to be vigorously promoted

in various countries, especially laws and regula-

tions on gender equality, which have begun to

be promulgated one after another, and many

scholars have also formed special research

groups to promote it more scientically. The

Commission for Gender Equality of the UPO

(now the Negotiating Commission of the Gen-

der Equality Plan) approved, on July 6, 2017, the

II Equality Plan between Women and Men of

Pablo de Olavide University. The Second Equal-

ity Plan promotes gender equality through six

main lines: communication, language, and in-

stitutional image; teaching, innovation, and re-

search; advocacy and training; representation

and professional advancement; communica-

tion and coordination; gender-based harass-

ment, discrimination, and violence (Oce for

Equality, 2022).

Out of the emphasis on “gender equality,” many

countries have promulgated legal provisions to

protect women’s rights and interests.

Article 23 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights

of the European Commission:

Equality between women and men must be en-

sured in all areas, including employment, work,

and pay.

The principle of equality shall not prevent the

maintenance or adoption of measures providing

for specic advantages in favor of the under-rep-

resented sex.

The mandate of Women and Gender Equality

Canada (WAGE) is to advance equality:

“...with respect to sex, sexual orientation, and gen-

der identity or expression through the inclusion of

people of all genders, including women, in Can-

ada’s economic, social, and political life. This ap-

plication of a gender and diversity lens will help

us better understand the intersection of sex and

gender with other identity factors. These factors in-

clude but are not limited to race, national and eth-

nic origin, Indigenous origin or identity, age, sexu-

173173

Nan Chen

al orientation, socio-economic condition, place of

residence and disability.”

However, when the bill’s provisions are imple-

mented in practice, the eect will still be some-

what compromised, and female journalists will

still be mistreated in the working environment.

The 2019 cross-national comparative study, the

World of Journalism Study (WJS), delves into the

disparities between the perspectives of male

and female professionals within the journalism

profession in Spain. This examination is based

on a comprehensive questionnaire adminis-

tered to a representative sample of journalists

hailing from 124 distinct media organizations.

The study discerns noteworthy distinctions in

the viewpoints and experiences of female and

male journalists within the eld.

The ndings from the WJS study reveal that

female journalists exhibit a heightened aware-

ness of the pressures emanating from corpo-

rate prot-driven objectives. Moreover, they ex-

press a greater sense of constraint stemming

from business decisions, censorship, political

inuences, and pressure groups. Within this

cohort, those with less inuence demonstrate a

tendency towards greater deference to political

and economic powers. In contrast, those who

manage to break through the metaphorical

“glass ceiling” often experience a heightened

degree of autonomy, potentially attributable

to their empowerment within the digital media

landscape. Interestingly, they are vocal advo-

cates for justice, albeit displaying diminished

interest in the supervisory role of power struc-

tures. These outcomes can be seen as inter-

twined with the necessity to “permit conformity”

while simultaneously revealing a comparatively

reduced awareness of the quality and ethical

decline within journalism (Hanitzsch, Hanusch,

Ramaprasad, & de Beer, 2019).

From the data published in the “Global Gen-

der Gap Report 2021”, it can be seen that from

2019 to 2020, Spain’s labor force participa-

tion rate by gender (women to men) showed

a decreasing trend (-0.39%) (Sharma, Chawla&

Karam, 2021).

Critical issues within the journalism industry

were underscored in a separate article pub-

lished in Textual & Visual Media in 2021 by

scholars Belén Cáceres Garrido and Sonia

Parratt Fernández from the Universidad Com-

plutense de Madrid. While conrming the exis-

tence of wage gaps, glass ceilings, and barriers

to accessing leadership positions in journalism,

the research also unveiled hitherto unobserved

challenges faced by this group. These challeng-

es encompass diculties in mediation, the per-

sistence of entrenched sexism, and instances

of harassment. Notably, more than half of the

respondents in their study were unaware of the

existence of equality programs within their re-

spective media companies. Furthermore, their

perceptions did not align with the objectives

and outcomes of these programs, indicating

a potential disconnection that hinders prog-

ress toward achieving gender equality within

the eld(Cáceres Garrido, Parratt Fernández,

2021).

Collectively, these ndings illuminate a com-

plex landscape within the Spanish journalism

profession, marked by gender-based dispari-

ties and a need for comprehensive eorts to

address issues of equality, representation, and

workplace conditions.

Regarding the issue of gender equality, Spain

has also made many eorts. On March 22, 2007,

Spain promulgated Organic Law No. 3/2007 on

the eective equality of men and women (Or-

ganic Law No. 3/2007, 2007), which establishes

a series of measures aimed at promoting real

equality at work, a program aimed at promot-

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An analysis of gender discrimination in the context of media convergence of

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ing mediation, promoting gender equality, fer-

tility and avoiding sexual harassment.

Spain ranks sixth in the European Union (EU) on

the Gender Equality Index for 2022 with a score

of 74.6 out of 100, 6.0 points above the Europe-

an Union (EU) average. Researchers from the

University of Seville (Universidad de Sevilla) and

the University of Pablo de Olavide (Universidad

de Olavide) conducted a study to analyze the

2020-2022 development of gender equality in

the EU Member States. The study shows that

Spanish society has made considerable prog-

ress in structural gender equality, reducing the

gap between men and women (Eriksson, 2020).

Although the overall score shows an upward

trend, in the analysis of specic indicators (work,

money, time, knowledge, power, and health ),

“Since 2019, Spain’s score has stalled in the do-

main of work (– 0.1 points), with a setback of

0.8 points in the sub-domain of participation. As

a result, Spain’s ranking in this sub-domain has

dropped from the 21st to the 23rd place (Europe-

an Institute for Gender Equality: Gender equality

index).”

In the line chart, it is not dicult to see that,

except for the “work” item, other indicators are

more or less showing an upward trend, only

this item does not rise but falls. Women still

face a relatively large problem of gender dis-

crimination in the workplace.

Reuters Institute’s report of 2023 covered 180

leaders from 240 media outlets, in which just

22% of the 180 hierarchical positions in 240

media outlets are held by women, even though,

on average, women represent 40% of the total

number of journalists who practice the profes-

sion in the 12 markets (Andi, Selva & Kleis Niel-

sen, 2023).

1.3 SPANISH FEMALE

JOURNALISTS

Since the 19th century, journalistic activities

have become one of the activities for women to

gain economic independence. The publication

of facts and opinions has always been a tool for

the development of social movements and the

defense of women’s rights. The authors made it

clear in La feminización de los estudios de Period-

ismo:análisis del caso español that women play a

vital role in journalism and have been involved

throughout Spain’s transition period (Santama-

rina, Ayerdi & Fernández, 2015). As with many

college majors, graduates of all disciplines in

Communication Studies are overwhelmingly fe-

male. In the journalism profession, this male-fe-

male ratio should normally be reected (Puer-

to, 2022). Women journalists have consistently

contributed to the media landscape, introduc-

ing a distinctive perspective into news coverage

and fostering greater diversity and inclusivity

within the industry. As the media eld evolves,

ensuring equitable opportunities for women’s

Table 1.

European Institute for Gender

Equality: Gender equality index, 2022

100

2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022

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Nan Chen

success and advancement in journalism re-

mains a compelling imperative (Dhiman, 2023).

However, judging from the actual implemen-

tation, female journalists still face unfair treat-

ment due to gender discrimination in the work-

ing environment and even suer from online

violence brought by social networks. According

to the data published by APM in the 2018-2021

annual report, discrimination against women

still exists objectively. Especially when it comes

to the choice of management positions, wom-

en are at a disadvantage (2018-2021 APM An-

nual Report), which has to be done. We think

of the decline in Spain’s gender equality index

score on the “work” indicator in recent years

(2022 Gender Equality Index Report), which is

also reected in the news media industry.

María Grijelmo García’s book Claves para period-

ismo femenista also mentions that management

red experienced journalists and hired pro-

fessionals with junior qualications or training

scholarships to save costs. The most signicant

impact of this move was on female journalists

group (2023). Regarding the unemployment

rate, female journalists are also much higher

than male journalists (Table 2).

Table 2

Unemployment journalists by gender, 2

008-2021.

(Data from Reports annual of APM)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Men

1750 3500 5250 7000

Women

Number of person

1.778

2.768

2.722

3.028

4.945

3.807

3.899

5.492

6.652

6.661

3.422

3.133

5.547

2.861

5.029

2.579

2.505

4.323

2.594

4.409

3.246

5.390

2.748

4.574

4.458

4.373

For women, there are usually externalized “sex-

ual” stereotypes and a derogatory image of

being consumed. Female journalists are often

concerned about their appearance rather than

their abilities in the working environment (2019

APM Annual Report).

2. METHODS AND ANALYSIS

2.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

In this article, we address the following key in-

quiries:

- To what extent do female journalists acknowl-

edge the evolving landscape of the journalism

profession and the transformative impact of

media integration?

- Do female journalists continue to contend

with harassment within the digital work envi-

ronment, and if so, what forms and frequencies

characterize these experiences?

- Within the context of media convergence, do

persistent workplace barriers, often referred to

as “glass ceilings,” remain discernible for female

journalists in their career trajectories?

Then, we designed a meticulously crafted ques-

tionnaire comprising 41 discrete variables,

including demographic information such as

gender and age, which was developed to fa-

cilitate data collection. These questionnaires

were distributed across various prominent so-

cial media platforms, encompassing Facebook,

Instagram, LinkedIn, Surveycircle, WhatsApp,

WeChat, among others. It is noteworthy that

the distribution strategy was underpinned by a

deliberate focus on soliciting participation pri-

marily from female journalists, with an overar-

ching goal of ensuring the utmost authenticity

and reliability of the ensuing dataset.

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To mitigate potential sources of bias and en-

hance data validity, the distribution strategy

was thoughtfully structured as follows:

Targeted Dissemination on Social Media Plat-

forms:

Within the Facebook ecosystem, discrete al-

liances and thematic groups predominantly

composed of Spanish journalists were meticu-

lously identied as ideal channels for dissemi-

nating the questionnaires.

On platforms such as Facebook and Instagram,

the questionnaires were judiciously distributed

to individuals whose social media proles bore

the professional designation of “Journalist”.

Further, they evidenced a discernible history

of occupational experience within the Spanish

journalistic landscape.

For chat software applications such as

WhatsApp and WeChat, distribution was fo-

cused on groups known to comprise journalists

or individuals pursuing journalism degrees and

internships.

On LinkedIn and Surveycircle, a transparent

and unequivocal stipulation was articulated, ex-

plicitly specifying that participation was exclu-

sively sought from actively practicing journalists

either currently employed in Spain or possess-

ing prior professional engagements within the

Spanish journalism milieu.

Data Analysis

The questionnaire instrument was designed

with utmost care to elicit a comprehensive

spectrum of data relevant to investigating gen-

der disparities among journalists. Specically,

it was tailored to capture multifaceted aspects

of reporters’ experiences and perspectives,

grounding the research in real-world job roles

and responsibilities.

A rigorous analytical process was undertaken

after the meticulous data collection phase. The

acquired dataset was subjected to exhaustive

scrutiny and interpretation through statistical

software tools, most notably SPSS and Excel.

This analytical framework was instrumental in

aording a comprehensive and empirically sub-

stantiated exploration of the research ndings.

In summation, this research approach, char-

acterized by the systematic construction of a

robust questionnaire, targeted distribution to

specic demographic groups, and method-

ologically rigorous data analysis, underpins a

nuanced and academically sound inquiry into

the dynamics of gender within the eld of jour-

nalism.

2.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Determine the sample size required to esti-

mate the proportion of female journalists in

the Spanish journalist population in Spain with

a condence level of 95% and a margin of error

of 5%. Assume a population ratio of 0.5 and no

limit on population size. The z at the 95% con-

dence level is 1.96. Then, we conclude that 384

samples are expected to be collected.

A meticulous data curation process was con-

ducted from the pool of collected question-

naires, adhering to stringent criteria to ensure

the reliability and coherence of the dataset. The

data curation process involved the following

key steps:

Geographic Filter:

Questionnaires originating from IP addresses

located outside of Spain were systematically

excluded from the analysis. Exceptions were

made for respondents with known identities

who were invited to participate despite being

outside of Spain.

Validation of Multiple-Choice Questions:

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Nan Chen

A comprehensive examination of question-

naires featuring multiple-choice questions was

carried out with precision. Specically, ques-

tionnaires that did not meticulously adhere to

the prescribed number of choices were iden-

tied and subsequently omitted from further

consideration.

Logical Consistency Assessment:

Rigorous scrutiny was applied to assess the log-

ical coherence of responses. Instances of illog-

ical or inconsistent responses were detected

and addressed. For example, if a respondent

armed a previous question with a “yes” re-

sponse but subsequently continued to answer

subsequent questions that should logically

have been skipped, such discrepancies were

agged and rectied.

Frequency analysis, descriptive analysis, and

chi-square test were used in the following anal-

ysis.

3. RESULTS

Following the application of these meticulous

data-cleaning criteria, a total of 387 response

sheets emerged as valid and were retained for

subsequent analysis. These responses were

distributed as follows: 317 emanated from fe-

male participants, while 63 were attributed to

male participants. In the dataset comprising

collected samples, female respondents con-

stituted a predominant segment, represent-

ing 81.91% of the total, whereas male partic-

ipants comprised a notably smaller fraction,

accounting for a mere 13.7%. This gender

distribution can be attributed to two probable

factors: One plausible explanation pertains to

the heightened enthusiasm exhibited by fe-

male respondents in their active participation

in the questionnaire. This enthusiasm implies

a heightened inclination among women to con-

tribute their perspectives on issues pertinent to

the eld under scrutiny. Furthermore, the dis-

tribution strategy employed for disseminating

questionnaires may have inadvertently favored

reaching and engaging a predominantly female

demographic. This unintentional gender bias

in the distribution process likely contributed to

the observed gender disparity in the collected

samples (Table 1).

Table 1

Gender

Categories

Frequen-

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Female 317 81.91% 81.91%

Male 53 13.70% 95.61%

Non-Binary 2 0.52% 96.12%

Don’t know/

Don’t want to

say

15 3.88% 100.00%

Total 387 100.0%

Among the participants, the largest category

of responses was “Ha aumentado” (Increased),

which accounted for 50.90% of the total re-

sponses. The following most frequent re-

sponse was “Ha aumentado mucho” (Increased

signicantly), with 9.56% of respondents choos-

ing this option. The cumulative percentages

provide insight into the overall trends. When

we add the percentages of respondents who

believe harassment has increased or increased

signicantly, we nd that approximately 60.47%

of participants perceive an increase in work-

place harassment (Table 2).

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An analysis of gender discrimination in the context of media convergence of

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Table 2

Probability of workplace

harassment in the context of media convergence

In the context of media convergence, con-

sider that workplace harassment...

Categories

Fre-

quency

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Has increased 197 50.90% 50.90%

Has increased

a lot

37 9.56% 60.47%

Has decreased 30 7.75% 68.22%

Has decreased

a lot

40 10.34% 78.55%

Has not expe-

rienced any

changes

83 21.45% 100.00%

Total 387 100.0%

Table 3

Frequency of harassment occurs at work

(Data source: 317 female respondents)

Given your professional experience, in a jour-

nalist’s work environment, harassment is…

Categories Frequency Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Quite

frequent

36 11.36% 11.36%

Frequent 177 55.84% 67.19%

Non-existent 23 7.26% 74.45%

Infrequent 81 25.55% 100.00%

Total 317 100.0%

As can be seen from the table above, Chi-

square test (cross analysis) was used to study

the dierential relationship between job stabil-

ity and the work experience of being harassed

by social networks. The table above shows that

dierent job stability samples have dierent ef-

fects on the work experience of being harassed

by social networks. The experience sample

showed signicance (p<0.05), and the work

stability sample showed 0.01 level signicance

for the work experience sample that suered

from social network harassment (chi=41.383,

p=0.000<0.01). By comparing the dierences in

percentages, it can be seen that the proportion

of Buena (Good) choosing No is 65.52%, and it

will be Signicantly higher than the average of

33.75%. The proportion of Muy mala (very bad)

choosing No is 62.07%, which is signicantly

higher than the average level of 33.75%. The

proportion of Mala (Bad) choosing Sí is 81.02%,

which is signicantly higher than the average of

66.25% (Table 4).

The majority of female respondents, 55.84%,

indicated that they perceive workplace ha-

rassment as “Frecuente” (Frequent). Another

noteworthy segment, 25.55% of respondents,

described workplace harassment as “Poco fre-

cuente” (Infrequent), implying that they perceive

harassment as a less common occurrence in

their work environment. Just a smaller pro-

portion, 11.36%, indicated that they consider

workplace harassment to be “Bastante fre-

cuente” (Quite frequent), and 7.26% described

workplace harassment as “Inexistente” (Non-ex-

istent), signifying their belief that harassment

is virtually absent in their professional milieu.

From the data of female respondents, we can

better feel that they suer harassment at work

(Table 3).

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Nan Chen

Items

Cate-

gories

Work stability(%)

Total

χ2

Good Bad

Very

good

Very

bad

Don’t

know/

Don’t

want

to say

Regular

Have you ever

suered

harassment for

your

proessional

work through

social

No 19(65.52) 26(18.98) 6(46.15) 18(62.07) 11(52.38) 27(30.68) 107(33.75)

41.383 0.000**

10(34.48) 111(81.02) 7(53.85) 11(37.93) 10(47.62) 61(69.32) 210(66.25)

Total 29 137 13 29 21 88 317

* p<0.05 ** p<0.01

Table 4

The correlation between job stability and whether you have experienced

online harassment (Data source: 317 female respondents)

Most respondents (59.69%) indicated work-

places where both genders hold leadership

positions, but men are more prevalent in these

roles. A signicant minority (11.89%) report-

ed environments where both genders are in

leadership, with women having a stronger rep-

resentation. In some workplaces, exclusive-

ly male superiors were reported by 9.82% of

respondents under “Siempre hombres” (Always

men). Similarly, 7.24% of respondents indicat-

ed workplaces where women exclusively hold

leadership roles, termed “Siempre mujeres” (Al-

ways women). The gender ratio distribution un-

derscores an enduring disparity in leadership

positions, with men maintaining a signicant

majority in decision-making roles (Table 5).

Table 5

Gender ratio in leadership positions

Your bosses or senior managers in the en-

vironment where you work have been...

(please choose the gender here)

Categories

Fre-

quency

Percent

Cumu-

lative

Percent

Women and men,

but more men

than women

que mujeres

231 59.69% 59.69%

Women and men,

but more women

than men

46 11.89% 71.58%

Others 44 11.37% 82.95%

Always men 38 9.82% 92.76%

Always women 28 7.24% 100.00%

Total 387 100.0%

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An analysis of gender discrimination in the context of media convergence of

Spanish female journalists

Table 6

Gender discrimination in selection for promotion positions

Table 7

Gender discrimination in job assignments

Have you experienced a case in journalism or

communication in which a woman has not been

promoted because priority has been given to a

man with the same abilities for said position?

Categories Frequency Percent

Cumulative

Percent

No 158 40.83% 40.83%

Yes 229 59.17% 100.00%

Total 387 100.0%

In the environment for which he/she cur-

rently works and when assigning the most

important responsibilities and profession-

al levels, priority is given to men...

Categories

Fre-

quency

Percent

Cumu-

lative

Percent

Sometimes 170 43.93% 43.93%

Many times 69 17.83% 61.76%

Never 50 12.92% 74.68%

Seldom 64 16.54% 91.21%

Always 34 8.79% 100.00%

Total 387 100.0%

43.93% of respondents indicated that a signif-

icant portion of respondents perceive instanc-

es where their current workplace occasionally

prioritizes men in the allocation of responsibil-

ities and higher professional levels. A minori-

ty (17.83%) experienced frequent instances

of men being prioritized in their workplaces.

These ndings shed light on the prevalence of

perceptions regarding the prioritization of men

in allocating responsibilities and higher profes-

sional levels within the respondents’ current

workplaces. A notable portion of respondents

indicates that such practices occur to varying

degrees, ranging from occasional to frequent

(Table 7).

The majority of respondents, accounting for

59.17%, answered “Sí” (Yes), indicating that they

have indeed witnessed cases where women

were not promoted despite having similar qual-

ications to men. This suggests a prevalent per-

ception of gender-based career advancement

disparities in the eld (Table 6).

181181

Nan Chen

4. CONCLUSION

In synthesis, adopting a macroscopic lens re-

veals that the rapid proliferation of digitaliza-

tion, propelled by technological integration,

along with the integration of traditional and

new media paradigms, has ushered in a trans-

formative era replete with enhanced prospects

for female journalists. This conuence has ef-

fectively dismantled the temporal and spatial

constraints that hitherto circumscribed their

professional domain, thereby endowing fe-

male journalists with a heightened capacity to

reconcile their occupational commitments with

their multifaceted roles in society, encompass-

ing marital and maternal responsibilities. Of

particular signicance, the advent of the global

COVID-19 pandemic in 2019 precipitated the

widespread adoption of remote working mo-

dalities, ostensibly augmenting the profession-

al autonomy of female journalists.

Within the ambit of our research, it becomes

patently evident that despite the presence of

legislative mandates and regulatory frame-

works ostensibly designed to propagate the

principles of gender equality, a conspicuous

lacuna exists in the translation of these policy

intentions into eective implementation. This

lacuna is particularly manifest in the persistent

conundrum of gender discrimination that con-

tinues to aict female journalists, most notably

concerning the constricted landscape of career

advancement prospects.

In the crucible of the evolving digital media

ecosystem, the conspicuous proliferation of

interactivity has engendered a burgeoning tide

of online violence, constituting a deeply discon-

certing conundrum. The virtual expanse now

facilitates the dissemination of commentaries

by individuals who often remain unacquaint-

ed with the female journalist under scrutiny.

Regrettably, these digital dialogues often be-

come reprehensible critiques of their physical

appearance. Consequently, the intrinsic worth

of female journalists, as measured by their

professional contributions and competencies,

is all too frequently consigned to the margins,

eclipsed by undue xation on supercial at-

tributes. This troubling dynamic perpetuates

pernicious gender-based stereotypes and sub-

verts the rightful recognition of their expertise

and adeptness within the contours of their cho-

sen vocation.

These ndings engender a clarion call for a

more concerted and holistic approach that

seeks to bridge the chasm between the original

legislative mandate and its eective enactment.

In confronting the pervasive quandary of gen-

der discrimination and the ominous specter of

online violence, an intricate tapestry of strate-

gies must be woven, encompassing heightened

consciousness, educational initiatives, and vig-

orous advocacy. Moreover, it behooves media

institutions and society at large to shoulder col-

lective responsibility in dismantling ingrained

discriminatory practices. In this endeavor, a

cultural metamorphosis is necessitated, one

that truly appreciates the professional contri-

butions of female journalists, valorizing their

competencies and dexterity rather than per-

petuating a myopic xation on superuous at-

tributes. Only through such a comprehensive

and multi-pronged approach can the authentic

spirit of gender equality be fully actualized with-

in the precincts of the journalistic profession.

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Spanish female journalists

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